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Spiritual practices were guided by shamans , with sacred groves , especially oak groves, serving as places of worship. The German Livonian Brothers of the Sword , who had previously subjugated Livonians , Latgalians , and Selonians , started campaigning against the Estonians in , and over next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids.
A major leader of the Estonian resistance was Lembitu , an elder of Sakala County , but in the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day , where Lembitu was killed.
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In , a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except Reval , but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in , Saaremaa was the last county to surrender. After the crusade, the territory of present-day Southern Estonia and Latvia was named Terra Mariana , but later it became known simply as Livonia. In , after suffering a major defeat , the Sword Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order becoming the Livonian Order. In , a major rebellion started, known as the St. The Teutonic Order finished suppressing the rebellion in , and the next year the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.
During the crusade, Reval Tallinn was founded, as the capital of Danish Estonia, on the site of Lindanise. Reval acted as a trade intermediary between Novgorod and Western Hanseatic cities, while Dorpat filled the same role with Pskov. Many guilds were formed during that period, but only a very few allowed the participation of native Estonians. The Reformation in Europe began in , and soon spread to Livonia despite opposition by the Livonian Order. During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of Muscowy , Sweden, and Poland—Lithuania consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order.
The Livonian Order was decisively defeated in , prompting Livonian factions to seek foreign protection. Russian forces gradually conquered the majority of Livonia, but in the late s the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies started their own offensives and the bloody war finally ended in with Russian defeat. In , the Polish-Swedish War broke out, causing further devastation.
The protracted war ended in with Sweden gaining Livonia , including the regions of Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia. While serfdom was retained under Swedish rule, legal reforms took place which strengthened peasants' land usage and inheritance rights, resulting this period's reputation of the "Good Old Swedish Time" in people's historical memory.
Printing presses were also established in both towns. In the s the beginnings of Estonian elementary education appeared, largely due to efforts of Bengt Gottfried Forselius , who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian. The Estonian national awakening began in the s as the leading figures started promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Its economic basis was formed by widespread farm buyouts by peasants, forming a class of Estonian landowners.
In Johann Voldemar Jannsen started publishing the first Estonian language newspaper and began popularising the denomination of oneself as eestlane Estonian. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jacobson started demanding increased political and economical rights.
In the late 19th century the Russification period started, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to the empire. In the early 20th century Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans. During the Revolution the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification.
During the unrest peasants and workers attacked manor houses. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some people were executed and hundreds more were jailed or deported to Siberia. In , after the February Revolution , the governorate of Estonia was expanded to include Estonian speaking areas of Livonia and was granted autonomy, enabling formation of the Estonian Provincial Assembly. However the Provincial Assembly established the Salvation Committee , and during the short interlude between Russian retreat and German arrival , the committee declared the independence of Estonia on 24 February , and formed the Estonian Provisional Government.
German occupation immediately followed, but after their defeat in World War I the Germans were forced to hand over power to the Provisional Government on 19 November. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in spring, the Estonian army, in cooperation with White Russian forces, advanced into Russia and Latvia. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a major offensive against Narva in late , but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February , the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed between Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia.
In April , the Estonian Constituent Assembly was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping land reform expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly liberal constitution establishing Estonia as a parliamentary democracy. Opposition candidates were allowed to participate, but only as independents, while opposition parties remained banned. Estonia joined the League of Nations in The pact's secret protocol divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, with Estonia belonging to the Soviet sphere.
The Estonian government felt that it had no choice but to comply, and the treaty was signed on 28 September.
Eesti Maaülikool
On the same day, the airliner Kaleva was shot down by the Soviet Air Force. On 16 June, Soviets presented an ultimatum demanding completely free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and, on the next day, the whole country was occupied. The Soviets established a regime of oppression; most of the high-ranking civil and military officials, intelligentsia and industrialists were arrested, and usually executed soon afterwards.
Soviet repressions culminated on 14 June with mass deportation of about 11, people to Siberia , among whom more than half perished in inhumane conditions. Soviet destruction battalions initiated a scorched earth policy.
Political prisoners who could not be evacuated were executed by the NKVD. In July, German Wehrmacht reached south Estonia. Soviets evacuated Tallinn in late August with massive losses, and capture of the Estonian islands was completed by German forces in October. Initially many Estonians were hopeful that Germany would help to restore Estonia's independence, but this soon proved to be in vain. Only a puppet collaborationist administration was established, and occupied Estonia was merged into Reichskommissariat Ostland , with its economy being fully subjugated to German military needs.
Numerous forced labour camps were established where thousands of Estonians, foreign Jews, Romani , and Soviet prisoners of war perished. The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early , but its advance into Estonia was stopped in heavy fighting near Narva for six months by German forces, including numerous Estonian units. Thousands of Estonians opposing the second Soviet occupation joined a guerrilla movement known as Forest Brothers.
The armed resistance was heaviest in the first few years after the war, but Soviet authorities gradually wore it down through attrition, and resistance effectively ceased to exist in the mid s. In March about 20, Estonians were deported to Siberia.
Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards. The Soviet Union began Russification , with hundreds of thousands of Russians being induced to settle in Estonia, which eventually threatened to turn Estonians into a minority in their own land. The introduction of Perestroika in made political activity possible again, starting an independence restoration process known as the Singing Revolution. Over the next two years almost all other Soviet Republics followed the Estonian lead issuing similar declarations.
Soviet authorities recognized Estonian independence on 6 September, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into the United Nations. In radical economic reforms were launched for switching over to a market economy, including privatisation and currency reform. Estonia lies on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea immediately across the Gulf of Finland, on the level northwestern part of the rising East European platform between The number of islands and islets is estimated at some 2, including those in lakes. Two of them are large enough to constitute separate counties: Estonia is situated in the northern part of the temperate climate zone and in the transition zone between maritime and continental climate.
Estonia has four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from The average annual temperature in Estonia is 5. Snow cover, which is deepest in the south-eastern part of Estonia, usually lasts from mid-December to late March. Estonia has over 1, lakes.
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There are many rivers in the country. Many species extinct in most of the European countries can be still found in Estonia.
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Mammals present in Estonia include the grey wolf , lynx , brown bear , red fox , badger , wild boar , moose , red deer , roe deer , beaver , otter , grey seal , and ringed seal. Critically endangered European mink has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa , and the rare Siberian flying squirrel is present in east Estonia.
There are 5 national parks, nature reserves, and many other protection areas. There are approximately 2, square kilometres sq mi of mires in Estonia which cover 5. Osmussaar is one of over 2, islands in the territorial waters of Estonia.